Finite Subordination

17. Finite Subordination

Overview of Main Clauses vs. Subordinate Clauses

In English syntax, sentences are often composed of different types of clauses. These clauses can be main (independent) clauses or subordinate (dependent) clauses. Understanding how these clauses function and interact helps us analyze complex sentences and understand sentence structure.

Main (Independent) Clauses

A main clause is a complete clause that can stand alone as a sentence. It has:

A subject
A finite verb phrase (with tense or modality)
Any required constituents, such as objects or complements
Optional elements like adverbials

Example of a Main Clause:

I had promised him the next waltz.

Analysis: This clause is independent and complete. It has a subject (I), a verb phrase (had promised), an indirect object (him), and a direct object (the next waltz).

Diagram for Main Clause

Subordinate (Dependent) Clauses

A subordinate clause (or dependent clause) cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. It relies on a main (independent) clause and fills a syntactic role within that main clause (e.g., as a subject, object, or adverbial).

A subordinate clause is embedded within a main clause, meaning it acts as a constituent of the main clause.

Subordinate clauses are often introduced by specific subordinating conjunctions (subordinators) or relativizers (such as that, who, if, when, etc.) that help indicate their function.

The main types of subordinate clauses are:

that-complement clauses
wh-complement clauses
if/whether complement clauses
finite adverbial clauses
relative clauses

Subordinate Clause Example

Let’s modify the main clause example above by replacing the direct object noun phrase with an entire clause:

I had promised him that the money didn’t mean anything.

Here, the clause that the money didn’t mean anything serves as the direct object of the main clause I had promised him X. This clause is embedded within the main clause and cannot stand alone.

Diagram for Sentence with Subordinate Clause as Direct Object

Now we learn each of these clause types in detail.

That-Complement Clauses

That-complement clauses (often called that-clauses) are finite subordinate clauses beginning with the word that. They are controlled by verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and nouns in a sentence.

In this context, control means that a specific word (the controlling word) governs or relates directly to the that-clause. The that-clause is syntactically tied to the meaning of this controlling word and often provides additional information required to complete its meaning.

Controlling Word: The word whose meaning is ‘complemented’ by the that-clause.
Examples of Controlling Words: Verbs like think, adjectives like aware, or nouns like idea.

Example:

I think that we should just do away with it altogether.

In this example:
- Controlling Word: The verb think.
- That-Complement Clause: that we should just do away with it altogether, which acts as the direct object of the verb, completing its meaning.

Internal Structure of That-Complement Clauses

Regardless of what controls them, all that-complement clauses share the same internal structure:

Subordinator (that): Introduces the clause and signals that an embedded clause will follow.
Complete Clause: Contains its own subject, verb phrase, and any necessary objects or complements.

Simplified Example:

I think that we should just do away with it altogether.

Diagram:

Terminology Note

Subordinator vs. Complementizer: The word that is sometimes called a complementizer, as it specifically introduces complement clauses. However, we will refer to it with the broader term subordinator in our diagrams.

Omission of “That”

In some sentences, particularly those with verb-controlled that-clauses, the that subordinator can be omitted.
Example: I think Ø we should just do away with it altogether.

Diagram:

Types of That-Complement Clauses Based on Controlling Words

Verb-Controlled That-Complement Clauses
Adjective-Controlled That-Complement Clauses
Adverb-Controlled That-Complement Clauses
Noun-Controlled That-Complement Clauses

1. Verb-Controlled That-Complement Clauses

When a verb controls a that-complement clause, the that-clause fills a syntactic role required by the verb, typically as a subject, direct object, or subject complement.

That-Clause as Subject

Although rare, a that-complement clause can function as the subject of the sentence.

Example:

That the technique is in demand is no surprise.

Diagram:

That-Clause as Direct Object (Monotransitive Verb)

A that-complement clause commonly functions as the direct object of a verb, providing the content of what the subject thinks, remembers, etc.

Example:

Tom remembered that the sight of them had made him smile.

Diagram:

That-Clause as Direct Object (Ditransitive Verb)

In some sentences, the that-complement clause serves as a direct object of a ditransitive verb, with an additional indirect object present.

Example:

She told her mother that she worried too much.

Diagram:

That-Clause as Direct Object (Passive Verb Phrase)

That-complement clauses can also act as the direct object in sentences with passive verb phrases.

Example:

I had been promised that it would be quiet and peaceful.

Diagram:

That-Clause as Subject Complement (Copular Verb)

When a copular verb is used, a that-complement clause can function as a subject complement, completing the subject’s meaning.

Example:

One explanation may be that self-esteem measures are not sufficiently specific.

Diagram:

2. Adjective-Controlled That-Complement Clauses

When controlled by an adjective, the that-complement clause completes the adjective’s meaning by explaining or expanding on the subject’s state or feeling.

Example:

They were happy that I had succeeded.

Diagram:

3. Adverb-Controlled That-Complement Clauses

An adverb-controlled that-complement clause provides additional information related to the intensity or extent of an action.

Example:

Jenny startled so badly that she screamed.

Diagram:

(the that-clause completes the meaning of “badly,” providing the result from how badly she startled)

4. Noun-Controlled That-Complement Clauses

With noun-controlled that-complement clauses, the clause specifies the content of the abstract noun, often acting as a further definition.

Example:

The idea that any noise could condemn you to death is a fundamental staple of horror movies.

Diagram:

the that-clause completes the meaning of “idea,” stating what the idea actually is:

the idea = any noise could condemn you to death

Finite Adverbial Subordinate Clauses

Finite adverbial subordinate clauses always fill an adverbial role in the main clause. They convey a range of adverbial meanings, such as when something happened (time adverbials), where something happened (place adverbials), and how something happened (manner adverbials)—typical meanings associated with adverbials.

Examples of Time, Place, and Manner Adverbials:

Time:
- After we explained our situation, he let us in.
- When they called us to lunch, many people did not go.
- These criteria are met once the prosecution negotiates pleas with defendants.
- I would doze off on the sofa while the kids were awake.
Place:
- Wherever she went, she saw many fine and beautiful things.
Manner:
- We will go on, as though it never happened.
- They just might transform your game like they did for me.

Finite adverbial clauses also convey other meanings such as reason, purpose, result, concession, and condition.

Examples of Other Adverbial Meanings:

Reason: I had misgivings about that because our equipment was far too inferior.
Purpose: Since the program had been a success, the company applied for a full permit.
Result: Everyone should see it soon, so that we can really exchange opinions.
Concession: Despite the main clause’s truth, other facts may contradict it.
- Although she rarely is the protagonist, her presence is felt and appreciated in books and film.
- This article concentrates on software, even though threats also arise from hardware, insiders, and physical attacks.
Condition/Contingency: The main clause is true only if specific conditions are met.
- If our interpretation is correct, we are led toward a completely different view.
- Most students only take the test one time, unless they didn’t pass it.
- Stats and carries don’t mean anything to me, as long as we win games.

Structure of Finite Adverbial Clauses

Finite adverbial clauses begin with a subordinator (also known as an adverbial subordinator), which is followed by a complete finite clause with a subject, verb phrase marked for tense or modality, and any required constituents.

Diagram Example:

After we explained our situation, he let us in.

Characteristics of Adverbial Clauses

Nature of the Subordinator: Some subordinators consist of multiple words (e.g., as though, even though, as long as).
Position of the Clause: Finite adverbial clauses can occur in sentence-initial or sentence-final positions.

Multi-Word Subordinator Examples:

as though it never happened
so that we can really exchange opinions

Diagramming Sentence Positions

Sentence-Initial Position: Diagrammed directly from the main “S” node.
- After we explained our situation, he let us in.
Sentence-Final Position: Diagrammed from the LVP node.
- These criteria are met once the prosecution negotiates pleas with defendants.

Complement vs. Finite Adverbial Clauses

Some finite adverbial clauses look similar to wh-complement clauses and finite clauses with if/whether. The difference lies in the syntactic role of the embedded clause:

Complement Clauses (obligatory): Fill required roles (e.g., direct object).
- You never know when trouble will crop up.
- The brain monitors told them when I woke up.
Finite Adverbial Clauses (optional): Modify the main clause, providing context without filling a required syntactic slot.
- They will know the truth when they hear it.
- She had told the tale when she was 21.

Diagrams by Type

Sentence-Initial Examples:

Time Adverbial
- When they called us to lunch, many people did not go.
Place Adverbial
- Wherever she went, she saw many fine and beautiful things.

Sentence-Final Examples:

Time Adverbial
- I would doze off on the sofa while the kids were awake.
Manner Adverbial
- We will go on, as though it never happened.

Finite Wh-Complement Clauses

Wh-complement clauses (or wh-clauses) are a type of finite complement clause that typically start with a wh-word. These clauses are sometimes called interrogative subordinate clauses because they can express indirect questions. They are structurally similar to wh-questions (like Who are we going to see?), but they function differently within sentences.

Like that-complement clauses, wh-clauses can occur as complements controlled by verbs, adjectives, and nouns.

Example of a Verb-Controlled Wh-Complement Clause

In the sentence below, the embedded wh-clause functions as the direct object of the verb (bolded), and the wh-clause is underlined.

Rachel can’t remember what they served last year.

Controlling Word: The verb remember.
Wh-Complement Clause (Direct Object): what they served last year

Diagram:

Structure of Wh-Complement Clauses

A wh-complement clause is similar to that-complement clauses in structure. It begins with a subordinator, which is the wh-word (e.g., what, who, where). This subordinator signals the start of the embedded clause, followed by a complete clause that contains:

A subject,
A verb phrase marked for tense or modality,
Any required constituents.

Example Structure:

Missing Constituent: The Gap

One distinctive feature of wh-complement clauses is the gap—a missing constituent in the clause, which is represented by the wh-word itself. The wh-word fills the gap by moving to the front of the clause, and this gap represents a missing constituent within the clause.

Example with Gap Identification:

They served Ø last year.

Here, something is missing in the object slot, replaced by the wh-word what.

This structure is rephrased as:

what they served last year

In full diagrams for wh-clauses, an arrow shows the movement of the wh-word to the front of the clause, linking it back to the gap.

Diagram with Movement Arrow (you are not required to diagram subordinate clauses fully in the exam):

In abbreviated diagrams, we use an arrow to show this relationship between the wh-subordinator and the embedded clause, as seen below (you can diagram like this in the exam):

Abbreviated Diagram:

Types of Wh-Complement Clauses Based on Control

Wh-complement clauses can occur in various syntactic positions within the main clause, depending on whether they are controlled by a verb, adjective, or noun.

1. Verb-Controlled Wh-Complement Clauses

Wh-Clause as Subject: A wh-clause can serve as the subject of the main clause.

Example:

What was in his heart doesn’t matter.

Diagram:

Wh-Clause as Subject Complement: A wh-clause can also act as a subject complement for a copular verb.

Example:

That would have been how Grandfather would do it.

Diagram:

Wh-Clause as Direct Object: A wh-clause can serve as a direct object of a monotransitive verb.

Example:

They had carefully recorded what they had taken.

Diagram:

Wh-Clause as Direct Object: Wh-clauses can serve as the direct object of a ditransitive verb as well.

Example:

I told them when everyone had to clear out.

Diagram:

Example:

Everyone had been paid what they deserved.

Diagram:

2. Adjective- and Noun-Controlled Wh-Complement Clauses

Wh-Clause as Adjective Complement: A wh-complement clause can also function as an adjective complement, completing the meaning of an adjective.

Example:

I wasn’t sure who hung up first.

Diagram:

Wh-Clause as Noun Complement: Wh-clauses can also complete the meaning of a noun, often describing the content or specifics of the noun.

Example:

I have no question what his ambitions are.

Diagram:

Finite Complement Clauses with If/Whether:

Embedded finite clauses that begin with “if” and “whether” form a type of interrogative complement clause, also considered a subtype of wh- clauses. Unlike wh- clauses that correspond to open-ended questions, if/whether clauses are typically yes/no questions. Here’s an example where the question can be answered with “yes” or “no”:

Example: “I’ve been wondering whether I should speak up.”

The structure of if/whether complement clauses is similar to other finite embedded clauses. Here:

The if or whether functions as a subordinator, introducing a complete clause containing a subject, verb phrase, and any other necessary clause constituents.
Notably, these subordinators do not represent missing constituents within the clause, so there’s no need to add an arrow pointing to them.

Diagram:

In a sentence like “I’ve been wondering whether I should speak up,” whether is followed by a complete clause, making it syntactically self-sufficient.

Contexts for Use: If/whether clauses are more restricted than wh- clauses. They typically function as:

Subjects
Direct Objects
Sometimes Adjective Complements

Examples

As Subject

“Whether this practice flies next season is the real question.”

Diagram Structure:

As Direct Object (Monotransitive Verb)

“I haven’t even decided if I like this show yet.”

As Direct Object (Ditransitive Verb)

“The judge had asked the jury whether it would resume deliberations.”

As Adjective Complement

“We’re unclear if this is premeditated or a crime of passion.”

Finite Relative Clauses

Throughout this semester, we have seen many prepositional phrases that occur after head nouns, functioning to modify or describe the head noun:

Example: the boy on the winning soccer team

Finite relative clauses function similarly to post-modifying prepositional phrases by providing additional information about the noun they follow. Here’s how a prepositional phrase can be rephrased into a relative clause:

Example: the boy who was on the winning soccer team

This structural similarity is reflected in tree diagrams where both prepositional phrases and relative clauses act as post-nominal modifiers (PNMs) within a noun phrase (NP). The difference lies in their form:

Structure of Relative Clauses

Unlike prepositional phrases, relative clauses are finite clauses, containing a subject, a verb phrase with tense or modality marking, and any other necessary constituents. Each relative clause is introduced by a relativizer (a function word like who, which, or that). Relativizers can be relative pronouns (which, who, whom, whose, that) or relative adverbs (where, when, why).

Example diagram of a relative clause:

Example: the boy who was on the winning soccer team

who acts as the relativizer, introducing the clause.
The relativizer points to a gap, or missing constituent, which it helps to fill. In this example, who represents the missing subject of the clause: “the boy who Ø was on the winning soccer team.”

Recognizing the Gap in Relative Clauses

The relative clause is often missing a constituent, known as the gap. This gap can be identified by examining the S node to locate any missing syntactic elements. The relativizer fills this gap, making the clause complete. The head noun and the relativizer are co-referential; they refer to the same entity, allowing the head noun to logically fill the missing slot in the relative clause.

Diagram with gap indication (you are not required to diagram subordinate clauses fully):

Types of Gaps in Relative Clauses

The syntactic role of the gap can vary, and relative clauses can exhibit different types of gaps:

Subject Gap
- Example: I have a few kids who are trying some sewing.
- Diagram:
Subject Complement Gap
- Example: The commercial society that we have become sometimes bothers me.
- Diagram:
Direct Object Gap
- Example: They primarily confirmed information that we had obtained elsewhere.
- Diagram:
Indirect Object Gap
- Example: Prosecutors talked to the woman to whom he told all his dirty little secrets.
- Diagram:
Object Complement Gap
- Example: Tony could never forget the hurtful names that his so-called ‘friends’ had called him in high school.
- Diagram:
Object of a Preposition Gap
- Example: We should reject the modern conveniences that we have become accustomed to.
- Diagram:
Adverbial Gap
- Example: The ancient prophecies had foretold a time when destruction by man had left the Earth desolate.
- Diagram:

Restrictive vs. Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses (not in exams)

Restrictive Relative Clauses: Narrow down the reference of the noun (e.g., He went looking for the kids who stole his bike.).
Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses: Provide supplementary information without limiting reference (e.g., One restriction is the dormant Commerce Clause, which prohibits certain state tax schemes.).

Note: Diagramming does not differentiate between restrictive and non-restrictive meanings as this distinction is primarily semantic.

Omission of the Relativizer (Zero Relativizer)

In some cases, the relativizer can be omitted (known as a zero relativizer), represented by the symbol Ø in diagrams. Zero relativizers are not possible with subject gaps.

Example: They primarily confirmed information Ø we had obtained elsewhere.

Placement of Prepositions with Relativizers

When the gap is associated with a preposition, the preposition can remain with the relativizer. For instance:

Example: the woman to whom he told all his dirty little secrets